Subsistence Strategies

Beginnings

Before the emergence of the Mature Harappan civilization, the region was inhabited by several distinct archaeological cultures. These cultures were characterized by unique pottery styles, signs of agricultural and pastoral activities, and evidence of craftsmanship. Typically, settlements during this period were relatively small in size, lacking significant large structures. There seems to have been a notable transition between the Early Harappan and the Harappan civilization, marked by widespread burning at certain sites and the abandonment of specific settlements....

Subsistence Strategies

If you examine Maps 1 and 2, you’ll notice that the Mature Harappan culture evolved within the regions previously occupied by the Early Harappan cultures. These cultures shared certain commonalities, including subsistence strategies. The Harappans had a diverse diet, incorporating various plant and animal products, with evidence derived from charred grains and seeds found at archaeological sites. Archaeo-botanists specialize in studying these ancient plant remains. Grains discovered at Harappan sites include wheat, barley, lentil, chickpea, sesame, and millets, with rice being relatively rare. Animal bones unearthed at Harappan sites indicate domesticated species like cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, and pig, alongside bones of wild animals like boar, deer, and gharial. The presence of fish and fowl bones suggests the inclusion of aquatic and avian resources in their diet....

Mohenjodaro A Planned Urban Centre

Mohenjodaro, one of the most prominent urban centers of the Harappan civilization, offers insight into their unique urban planning and architecture. Unlike Harappa, the first discovered site which suffered extensive damage due to brick theft, Mohenjodaro’s structures were better preserved. The settlement is divided into the Citadel and the Lower Town, with the Citadel being elevated and walled off from the Lower Town. The Citadel featured buildings constructed on mud brick platforms, while the Lower Town also had walled sections with buildings on platforms....

Tracking Social Differences

To discern potential social or economic disparities within a civilization, archaeologists often analyze burial practices. Unlike the grand pyramids of Egypt, which served as royal tombs, Harappan burials typically involved placing the deceased in pits, sometimes lined with bricks, though the significance of such variations remains uncertain. Graves occasionally contained pottery and ornaments, suggesting a belief in afterlife provisions. Jewelry has been unearthed in both male and female graves, with notable discoveries like a male burial containing intricate ornaments near the skull, including shell rings, a jasper bead, and numerous microbeads. While some burials included copper mirrors, the overall pattern suggests a reluctance to inter valuable items with the dead....

Finding Out About Craft Production

Chanhudaro, a small settlement of less than 7 hectares, contrasted starkly with the sprawling Mohenjodaro, primarily serving as a center for various craft productions. Craftsmanship at Chanhudaro encompassed bead-making, shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making, and weight-making. Beads were crafted from a diverse range of materials, including carnelian, jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, copper, bronze, gold, shell, faience, and terracotta. These beads displayed various shapes and decorations, highlighting the artisans’ skill and creativity. Craft techniques varied according to the materials used; for instance, steatite beads were molded from a steatite powder paste, allowing for versatile shapes. The production process for carnelian involved chipping nodules into rough shapes, followed by fine flaking, grinding, polishing, and drilling. Specialized drills discovered at sites like Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira shed light on ancient technology....

Strategies for Procuring Materials

The Harappans utilized a variety of materials for craft production, sourcing them both locally and from distant regions. While materials like clay were readily available in the alluvial plain, others such as stone, timber, and metal had to be obtained from outside areas. Terracotta toy models of bullock carts hint at the importance of land routes for transporting goods and people, while riverine routes along the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastal routes, were likely utilized as well....

Seals, Script, Weight

Seals and sealings played a crucial role in facilitating long-distance communication and ensuring the security of goods during transportation. A bag of goods would have its mouth tied with rope, and wet clay with one or more seals pressed onto it would be affixed to the knot. If the bag arrived with its sealing intact, it indicated that it had not been tampered with, and the sealing also revealed the identity of the sender....

Ancient Authority

Complex decisions were evidently made and executed within Harappan society, as indicated by the remarkable uniformity of Harappan artifacts like pottery, seals, weights, and bricks. Notably, even though bricks were not produced in a centralized manner, they maintained a consistent ratio throughout the region, from Jammu to Gujarat. Settlements were strategically established in specific locations for various purposes, and labor was organized for brickmaking and the construction of large-scale structures....

The End of the Civilization

Around 1800 BCE, most of the Mature Harappan sites in areas like Cholistan were deserted, while there was a population expansion into new settlements in regions like Gujarat, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh. The few Harappan sites that remained occupied after 1900 BCE underwent a transformation in material culture, with the disappearance of distinctive artifacts such as weights, seals, and special beads. Writing, long-distance trade, and craft specialization also vanished. There was a significant reduction in the quantity and variety of materials used for manufacturing, and house construction techniques deteriorated, with fewer large public structures being built. Overall, the material remains and settlements indicate a shift towards a rural way of life in what are termed “Late Harappan” or “successor cultures.”...

Discovering the Harappan Civilization

The discovery of the Harappan civilization by archaeologists involved a gradual process of recognition and understanding. Initially, when Harappan cities fell into ruin, people forgot about them, and later generations encountered strange artifacts occasionally unearthed by natural processes like floods, erosion, or agricultural activities....

Problems of Piecing Together The Past

Understanding the ancient Harappan civilization relies more on material evidence than on deciphering their script. Archaeologists analyze various artifacts such as pottery, tools, ornaments, and household items to reconstruct aspects of Harappan life. However, organic materials like cloth, leather, wood, and reeds typically decompose over time, leaving behind only durable materials such as stone, burnt clay, and metal....