When we talk about programming languages the first thing that comes to our mind is languages like C, C++, Java, Python, etc. But those languages hide the actual working i.e., that abstracts many things from users. But there is a language that really lies on basic concepts behind the programming or interaction between computer hardware.

Assembly language is a low-level language that helps to communicate directly with computer hardware. It uses mnemonics to represent the operations that a processor has to do. Which is an intermediate language between high-level languages like C++ and the binary language. It uses hexadecimal and binary values, and it is readable by humans.

Assembly language has evolved hand in hand with advancements in computer hardware and the evolving needs of programmers. Here’s a closer look at each generation:

First Generation (1940-1950) :

• Computers relied on vacuum tubes, and programming was directly in machine language, using binary instructions.
• Assembly language emerged as a readable abstraction, employing mnemonic codes to represent machine instructions.

Second Generation (1950-1960) :

• Transistor-based computers replaced vacuum tubes, offering enhanced Consistency and prowess.
• Assembly languages became more intricate to handle the complex instruction sets of these new machines. Simultaneously, high-level programming languages like FORTRAN and COBOL provided Advanced abstraction

Third Generation (1960-1970) :

• Integrated circuits became Standard place, resulting in Diminished but potent computers.
• Assembly languages evolved further, introducing features like macros and symbolic labels, which boosted programmer productivity and code readability.

Fourth Generation (1970-1980) :

• The beginning of microprocessors transformed computing, paving the way for microcomputer systems such as the IBM PC and Apple II.
• Assembly languages for microcomputers were redesigned to enhance user accessibility, featuring syntax highlighting and automatic indentation, thus increasing inclusivity for a larger group of programmers.

Fifth Generation (1980-present) :

• This era is characterized by executing multiple computational tasks simultaneously this method is known as parallel processing system and the growth of sophisticated software systems
• Assembly language continued to evolve to meet the demands of programmers, with the deployment of cutting-edge debugging methods andtools focused on improving code performance and productivity.for intricate systems.

Assembly languages contain mnemonic codes that specify what the processor should do. The mnemonic code that was written by the programmer was converted into machine language (binary language) for execution. An assembler is used to convert assembly code into machine language. That machine code is stored in an executable file for the sake of execution.

It enables the programmer to communicate directly with the hardware such as registers, memory locations, input/output devices or any other hardware components. Which could help the programmer to directly control hardware components and to manage the resources in an efficient manner.

• Write assembly code: Open any text editor in device and write the mnemonic codes in it and save the file with a proper extension according to your assembler. Extension can be .asm, .s, .asmx.
• Assembling the code: Convert your code to machine language using an assembler.
• Generating object file: It will generate an object file corresponding to your code. It will have an extension .obj.
• Linking and creating executables: Our assembly language might contain multiple source codes. And we have to link them to libraries to make it executable. We can use a linker like lk for this purpose.
• Running program: After creating an executable file we can run it as usual. It will depend on the software that how to run the program.

• Registers: Registers are the fast memory locations situated inside the processor. Which helps ALU to perform arithmetic operations and temporary storing of data. Example: Ax (Accumulator), Bx, Cx.
• Command: An instruction in assembly code known as a command informs the assembler what to do. Assembly language instructions typically employ self-descriptive abbreviations to make the vocabulary simple, as “ADD” for addition and “MOV” for data movement.
• Instructions: Instructions are the mnemonic codes that we give to the processor to perform specific tasks like LOAD, ADDITION, MOVE. Example: ADD
• Labels: It is a symbolic name/identifier given to indicate a particular location or address in the assembly code. Example: FIRST to indicate starting of execution part of code.
• Mnemonic: A mnemonic is an acronym for an assembly language instruction or a name given to a machine function. Each mnemonic in assembly corresponds to a specific machine instruction. Add is an illustration of one of these machine commands. CMP, Mul, and Lea are among further instances.
• Macro: Macros are the program codes that can be used anywhere in the program through calling it once we define it. And it is often embedded with assemblers and compilers. We should define it using a directive %macro. Example: %macro ADD_TWO_NUMBERS 2
  add eax, %1
  add eax, %2
  %endmacro
• Operands: These are the data or values that we are given through instruction to perform some operation on it. Example: In ADD R1,R2 ; R1 and R2 are operands.
• Opcode: These are the mnemonic codes that specify to the processor which operation has to be done. Example: ADD means Addition.

Binary Number System

There are generally various types of number systems and among them the four major ones are,

• Binary Number System (Number system with Base 2)
• Octal Number System (Number system with Base 8)
• Decimal Number System (Number system with Base 10)
• Hexadecimal Number System (Number system with Base 16)

Binary Number System is a number system that is used to represent various numbers using only two symbols “0” and “1”. The word binary is start with prefix “bi” which means two so only two number that is 0 and 1 is used to represent any decimal number. Hence, this number system is called Binary Number System. Thus, the binary number system is a system that has only two symbols.

In a binary number system, we represent the number as,

• (11001)₂

Decimal to Binary:

For writing binary number of any decimal number then follow above table if number is less than 511.

Example: Write binary number of 45.

Solution:

Step 1: Break decimal number in nearest smallest number into power of 2.

45=32+8+4+1

Step 2: From Highest number (i.e. 32) to end (i.e. 1) write 1 in table if number is present otherwise write 0.

So binary number of 45 is-101101

Hexadecimal Number System

Hexadecimal Number System  is a number system that is used to represent various numbers using 16 symbols that is from 0 to 9 digits and A to F alphabet and it is a base-16 numeral system. 0 to 9 in decimal and Hexadecimal is same.

Hexadecimal numbers can easily converted to another form like Binary number system, Decimal number System, Octal number System and vice-versa. In this article we only focus to convert Hexadecimal to decimal and vice-versa.

Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion:

Step 1: Take a input decimal value N.

Step 2: Devide N with 16 and store remainder.

Step 3: Again divide quotient with 16 obtain in Step 2 and store remainder.

Step 3: repeat Step 3 until Quotient become 0.

step 4: Write remainder in reverse order and this is the hexadecimal value of the number.

Example : Convert 450 Decimal value into Hexadecimal.

step 1: N = 450.

Step 2: 450/16 gives Q = 28, R = 2.

Step 3: 28/16 gives Q = 1, R = 12 = C.

Step 4: 1/16 gives Q = 0, R = 1.

Step 5 : hexadecimal of 450 is 1C2.

Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

To convert Hexadecimal to Decimal multiply each digit by 16 to the power of its position starting from the right and the position of rightmost digit is 0 then add the result.

Example: Convert (A7B)₁₆ to decimal.

(A7B)₁₆ = A × 16² + 7 × 16¹ + B × 16⁰

⇒ (A7B)₁₆ = 10 × 256 + 7 × 16 + 11 × 1 (convert symbols A and B to their decimal equivalents; A = 10, B = 11)

⇒ (A7B)₁₆ = 2560 + 112 + 11

⇒ (A7B)₁₆ = 2683

Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (A7B)₁₆ is (2683)₁₀.

• It provides precise control over hardware and hence increased code optimization.
• It allows direct access to hardware components like registers, so it enables tailored solutions for hardware issues.
• Efficient resource utilization because of low level control, optimized code, resource awareness, customization etc.
• It is ideal for programming microcontrollers, sensors and other hardware components.
• It is used in security researches for finding security vulnerabilities, reverse engineering software for system security.
• It is very essential for the making the operating systems, kernel and device controllers that requires hardware interaction for its functionality.

• Complex and very hard to learn the language especially for beginners.
• It is highly machine dependent. So, it limits portability.
• It is really hard to maintain the code, especially for large scale projects.
• It is very time consuming since it is really hard to understand and very length of code.
• Debugging is very challenging to programmers.

Where is assembly language used for?

• Operating system development
• Device driver creation
• Embedded systems programming
• Real-time applications
• Security research

Difference between Assembly language and High Level Language?

Assembly Language is mnemonic codes and closely related to CPU’s instruction set. In HLL there is abstraction.

Which CPU Architecture Should I Learn for Assembly Programming?

8085 and 8086 micro processor architectures are very far better to understand concepts.

Is Assembly Language Still Relevant in Modern Computing?

Yes. Assembly language remains relevant.